Creating Presence in Distance Education
(Short Version of a Post-doctoral Paper - in Progress)
Rosemary Lehman
Introduction
Presence, a sense of "being there" is critical to the success of designing, teaching, and learning at a distance using both synchronous and asynchronous (blended) technologies. Until recently, presence has been defined and discussed in terms of behavioral or cognitive theory. Emotional aspects of presence have been largely ignored. A theory of presence must incorporate emotions and take into consideration their interaction with behavior and cognition. Emotions, behavior, and cognition are components of the way in which presence is perceived and experienced and are essential for explaining the ways in which we consciously and unconsciously perceive and experience distance education. A more complete understanding of the integration of the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional components of presence into distance education teaching and learning will impact the design, instructional facilitation, and experience of distance education faculty and learners.
Emotion, Integral to Perceiving Real and Virtual Presence
There has been a long history of viewing emotion as separate from cognition, and a long-held belief that emotion is inferior to thinking; that it is, in fact, not to be trusted (Damasio, 1999). Dating back to early Greek culture, Plato, in a first attempt to study the mind systematically stated that it was comprised of three conflicting component parts: reasoning, desiring, and emotive parts in unstable equilibrium. In this tripartite model, emotion clouded the mind, making clear thought difficult (Dreyfus, 2002; Scherer, 1993). This model influenced thinkers for centuries and to this day has its advocates.
In the 17th century Descartes discounted the tripartite model and focused on dualism of the mind and the body as polar opposites. Advocating "I think, therefore I am", his philosophy placed cognition in the foreground, and relegated emotions to the shadows (Newman, 2000). By the 18th century, the age of enlightenment brought increased speculation on the nature of the mind. Many scholars in this period reverted to Plato's legacy, three-part compartmentalization of the mind. Mendelssohn, for example, contended that the mind was comprised of three components: experience, rational knowledge, and reasoning (Falk, 2004). From another perspective, Kant viewed emotion as an illness, a sickness of the mind (Frijda, Manstead, and Bem, 2000). Considering this history, it is not surprising that through the 19th century, a belief in the primacy of cognition became firmly established.
At the end of the 19th century, William James and others, inspired by Aristotle, began to write and speak of the emotions as bodily states read by the mind and playing a central role in thinking. James envisioned emotion as assisting the mind in focusing on important facts and helping make decisions appropriate to the specific situation. (O'Regan, 2003). This view saw emotion as playing a central role in cognition and gave emotion a more privileged place in science and a respect for its importance. In an attempt to better understand emotions, both James and Darwin identified and categorized them.
The early 1900's, saw a reversal in thinking, as behaviorists began to dominate the scientific scene and advocated the belief that the mind could be studied only through the observation of measurable behaviors. By the mid-1900's, with the development of computers, the pendulum swung from behaviorism to an emphasis again on cognition, and the field of cognitive science emerged as a new science of mind. These scientists saw computer functions as a parallel to the functions of the human mind. This idea resulted in new fields of study in artificial intelligence (AI) and information processing (IP) which have given us valuable information on how we perceive the world using formal rules of logic, but have bypassed the evolutionary wisdom of emotion (LeDoux, 1996). Bloom (1956), on the other hand, led a group of academics in the identification of three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. This group developed a detailed taxonomy for the cognitive and affective domains. Having had little experience in the area of manual skills, they decided not to elaborate on the psychomotor domain. For the affective domain five general areas were listed: selected attention in receiving information, active participation in responding, valuing based on internalized values, organizing and prioritizing, and internalizing the values based on internalization. In addition, the taxonomy looked closely at methods for affective assessment. (Krathwol, D. 1956.)
This direction of psychological research began to slowly have an impact. But for the most part, emotion continued to be suspect and throughout this period, neuroscience and cognitive science dismissed emotion as not to be trusted in the laboratory. Studying emotion was again considered irrational.
The corporate world has followed a similar course. Traditionally only the skills and knowledge domains have been part of the corporate training focus. Training professionals have shied away from the affective domain because of its complexity, a lack of research, and the expense and impracticality of developing learning technologies that map to the affective domain.
Recent research, however, is indicating yet another reversal. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is now incorporating emotional scripts or schema into their programs, modeling aspects of emotions and ways in which they are processed. Newer research in the fields of neurobiology and psychology that is looking at emotions in terms of their corresponding brain function are beginning to reveal the critical relationship between behavior, cognition, and emotion and the significance of viewing them as integral, rather than conflicting, components (LeDoux, 1996; Davidson and Harrington, 2002). Other researchers are developing appraisal theories of emotion. Scherer, for example, notes the close interactions between cognitive, affective, and motivational processes. Scherer (1984, 1986) sees emotion as a sequence of "state" changes in all subsystems of an organism and as playing a central role in goals and needs. In this approach there is strong emphasis on synchronization and interlinking. Still others are looking at the intelligence of the emotions and the importance of becoming aware of and understanding emotions. (Gardner, 1983; Goleman 1995; Le Doux, 1996; Koonce, 1996). In his theory of multiple intelligences,
These researchers contend that emotions focus our perceptions on particular aspects of a situation and that we could not function without them. Emotions, they say, allow us to focus on situations and arrive at thoughtful decisions. The more we become aware of our emotions, the more we are able to use them in connection with the thought process, to clarify our perceptions, and make decisions more appropriate to a given situation. MIT is basing its Learning Companion project on the interplay of emotion, cognition, and learning. This project is developing an affective companion prototype that will provide emotional support to students in the learning process, assisting them by helping to alleviate frustration and self-doubt. (Pikard, Kort, and Reilly, 2004).
Emotions, however, are not only to be viewed in individual terms but in socio-cultural terms as well; that is, emotions exist not only within individuals but also between and among them as individuals relate to and interact with one another. This way of thinking necessarily leads to questions of relationships and value. Denzin (1984) and others (O'Regan, 2003; Averill, 1980) argue that emotional understanding occurs as people draw from their individual emotional experiences and respond to and judge the presumed states of those around them. Emotional understanding, trust, and high quality emotional skills are critical to relationships. This is particularly important in the teaching, learning relationship.
The emotional domain is complex and includes: 1) feelings, which result from emotional experiences; 2) affect, emotion as distinguished from thought or action; and 3) emotion, a complex and usually strong subjective response. In addition, the emotional domain encompasses attitudes and values, morals and ethics, and personal development. (Reigeluth, 1996).
Our naivety of the emotional domain and of the ability to identify emotions, our lack of understanding of the way in which emotions work in the individual thought process, and our low level of comprehension of emotional skill development, along with the integration of emotion into our social interactions with others, are critical areas for research. In summary, emotions are central to the manner in which we perceive, experience, and learn. "Emotions are adaptations that can work in harmony with the intellect and are indispensable to the functioning of the whole mind." (Pinker, 1997). According to Hargreaves (2001), emotion should be placed at the very center of research rather than relegated to the periphery.
Presence and the Role of Emotion in Creating Presence
Presence
The word "presence" brings to mind a sense of complete authenticity in the moment. When a person exudes presence that person is conveying a sense of self that is perfectly blended intrinsically and socially; our attention is drawn to that person and we are completely oblivious to distractions or other elements in the surrounding environment. I remember such a person vividly, although it has been eight years since I heard her present at an educational technology conference. She captured the audience's attention from the moment she walked onto the stage until the moment she left. Unlike most presenters, she used no media, no technology - she was the media, the technology. Her attention was solely on us and ours on her. The stories she told related to our stories. Her movements were at once sensual and intellectual. It was an example of presence that I have not forgotten.
The concept of presence is complex and not easy to grasp. Presence is the result of the dynamic interplay between emotion, behavior, cognition, and the environment; between the private world and the shared world and is embedded in the enactive perceptual process (Noe, A., To be Published). The idea of presence was recognized in the 1970's as a key concept (Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976). Systematic research in the area of presence, however, is in the early stages and, at present, there is no generally accepted theory of presence. Increasingly, however, presence is being examined by a growing number of scholars in the international community and in varied fields of research, philosophy, psychology, computer science, and distance education (IJsselsteijn, de Ritter, Freeman, and Avons, 2000). Ijsselsteijn, de Ritter, Freeman, and Avons, (2000) define presence as a sense of 'being there', a 'sensation of reality', 'an illusion of nonmediation.' The complexity of presence, they state, lies in its multiple determinants, as well as the various factors that impact on presence.
Because presence is a perceptual illusion, it is a property of the individual, whose very nature is to perceive. Perceiving is a skillful action, an enactive approach. Perception and action are not separate or peripheral to cognition, rather they are dynamically and spontaneously integral and ongoing. In this process, self/other, appearance/reality emerge from the information space that is shared by perception and action. In this space there is both active perception and the perceiving of action (Hurley, 1998).
An example of the complexity of presence can be found in Garrison, Anderson, and Archer's Practical Inquiry Model (2001). This model focuses on one aspect of presence, cognitive presence as it relates to critical thinking. The model outlines the negotiation phases that the individual progresses through, from the first dimension of the private world of reflection through the second dimension of experience (the interface between the concrete and abstract), and into the third dimension (of the shared world and discourse). This circular and spiraling process is one of reflection, integration, ideas, resolution, discourse, action, sharing, triggering, awareness, exploration, and reflective deliberation. A Community of Inquiry Model, later developed by these authors (Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, 2003), adds social presence and teaching presence and views them as components of cognitive presence. In this view, social presence and teaching presence are seen as the projection of instructors and learners both individually and socially as "real people" who direct and facilitate social processes that result in meaningful outcomes for learners. Other models expand on the components of cognitive presence, teaching presence, and social presence and add environmental presence (Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976; Gunawardena, 1995; Rice, 1992; Sheridan, 1992).
Presence, as has been noted, is a complex concept. To better understand this concept, it is essential to look at it comprehensively. First, presence can be divided into types (Figure 1), which are associated with immediacy (Short et al, 1976), and intimacy (Argyle and Dean, 1965). Next there are modes of presence, ways in which presence is experienced. There are also determinants of presence, ways in which media and technology, content, and users interact during the experience of presence. In addition, there are dimensions of presence, which include the mind, the interface with the world, and the world (Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, 2001). Further, there are critical elements to consider when conveying and experiencing presence, that include what occurs within the individual and between the individual and others, the prior experience that the individual and others bring to the situation, expectations that each has determined, and the need for levels of support and trust.
Types of Presence Description of Types of Presence |
|
Subjective |
This type is personal and psychological; it affords a sense of being there and takes place within a person's mind and body. It is cognitive, behavioral, and emotional). |
Objective |
A sense of being there physically, feeling that one is located in a mediated space. |
Social |
A sense of being with others who exist in the world and react to you.. Social presence may be derived from conversing and interacting with others. When others recognize and react to you it validates your existence (Wijanand, date). The importance of ongoing relationships is significant and enables and facilitates bonds of understanding (Hargreaves, date). |
Environmental |
A sense that the environment knows that you are an integral part of it and that it reacts to you. |
Figure 1
Modes of presence
There are a number of modes or ways in which presence can be experienced. Among these are realism, immersion, involvement, and suspension of disbelief. In each mode, the attempt is to create the "illusion of nonmediation" previously mentioned, so that an individual no longer perceives the existence of the medium in his/her communication environment and responds as though the medium were transparent. (IJsselsteijn, de Ritter, Freeman, and Avons, 2000). When this occurs and is, at the same time both perceptual (individual) and social, it is the most powerful experience. In a sense, all experiences are mediated by our intrapersonal sensory and perceptual systems, and by the everyday technologies that have become an integral part of our lives. These technologies include such additions to our lives as hearing aids and eyeglasses that "come between" our perceptual systems and our environment. When we forget that we have hearing aids in or glasses on we become unaware of them. In just this way, when we forget that there is technology in the distance education experience, the border between this side and that side dissolves and the "liminal" line that initially separated, disappears.
In the case of the mode of realism, attempts are made to closely match visual and aural aspects of the "real" world to those that are used in the virtual experience, to build on the potential of the technology, compensate for its limitations and, close the necessary gaps, creating an equilibrium of reality (Argyle and Dean 1965). Another mode is that of immersion. In this method, tools are used to create a virtual world that draws the participant into the environment, and through the use of these tools appeals to as many of the senses as possible. In this case, illusion is created by the detailed mapping to physical reality. The mode of involvement, on the other hand, is a mode of creating personal, interactive engagement with the learner and others to involve them in such a way that the line is blurred between the real and the virtual world. A fourth mode, suspension of disbelief, is quite a different. Coined by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his Biographia Literaria (1817), this mode is more of a psychological "letting go" in which participants "willingly" suspend their critical faculties, accept the limitations of what is happening and, in essence, sacrifice believability. (Wikipedia, 2004)
Determinants of presence
Presence is determined by the interaction of the formal characteristics of the media or technology being used, the characteristics of the content, and the characteristics of the users. (Lombard and Ditton, 1997). In the category of formal characteristics, consideration needs to be taken of the potential for working with color, forms-images, sound, time-space, motion, composition-frame, and orchestration-environment, (Lehman, 1977). A component and important question that must also be considered is the limitations of the medium or technology and the necessary compensation for the limitations. Additional questions that arise in this area of characteristics in the era of distance learning are: Can the medium or technology interface with broadband or narrowband networks? Is it best used with large audiences or better used with small audiences? What will the image size and proportion need to be for the participant? What about the perception of dimensionality? Formal content characteristics are concerned with the management-execution (instruction), and narrative-idea (curriculum or storyline), as well as the relationships of people to others (Lehman, 1977): other people, animals, avatars, animations, or objects. Formal user or participant characteristics encompass user personality, learning style, age, gender, culture, experience, expectations, interactivity, viewing distance, tasks, and number of participants.
Because there are psychological learner differences in perceiving presence, a sense of presence will vary across individuals, as well as across time for the same individual. For example, some types of personalities are more receptive to experiences where a sense of presence is required, while others are not. And, depending on the psychological state of an individual, that person may be more receptive to a sense of presence at one time and less at another. In addition, educators and psychologists have identified varied learning styles, such as a preference for the various communication channels and methods for learning: visual, auditory, tactile, personal (emotional), logical spatial, linguistic, and so on. (Gardner, 1983, 2003; Goleman1995). Understanding learners and providing a variety of experiences to appeal to the preferred channels of learning is the most convincing way to create a sense of presence for diverse learners (
Dimensions of presence
To be able to understand the creation and realization of presence for educational purposes, Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2001) state that it is crucial to recognize and understand the inner worlds of individuals in which they reflect, deliberate and integrate information; and the ways in which these worlds interface and transition through perception, experience, and conception to the shared physical world of discourse and action - the enactive perceptual process (Noe, To be published). They refer to these three areas as dimensions: the dimension of the mind/body (deliberation/action continuum), the interface or transition between the abstract and concrete world (the perception/conception process), and the dimension of the concrete world (which is shared with others).
Critical elements for creating, conveying and/or, experiencing presence
To create, convey and/or experience a sense of presence it is necessary to become familiar with and take into consideration the types, modes, determinants, and dimensions of presence. In addition, it is important to recognize that when others sense your existence it may enhance your individual sense of presence and your differentiation of self and experience of self. Further, as you continue to experience and practice with a technologies, in groups and sharing with others, a sense of presence will most likely increase. Presence will also be affected by your expectations based on prior experience; as expectations rise, you will expect more refined ways in which presence can be experienced. Throughout this process, trust and support are critical.
Presence, as a psychological state in which a media user no longer recognizes the role of technology in his or her experience (Lombard, 2000) is an illusion in which the technology seems to disappear and people at locations that are in reality separated "perceive" and "feel" that they are "co-present" (Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, 2001) in the same room, in much the same way that the presenter I recall so vividly, at the educational technology conference eight years ago, seemed to be at one with the audience.
The Role of Emotion in Creating Presence
A Framework for Creating Presence in the Blended Distance Education Experience
Methods for Measuring Presence in Blended Distance Education Experiences
Future Presence Research
Implications for Practice
Implications for Future Research
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