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What are the statistics?
Grandparents raising their grandchildren are nothing new; however, the issue is increasingly a focus of the public eye. Since 1980, there have been dramatic increases in the number of children living with and being cared for by their grandparents. In 1980, 2.3 million (4%) children under 18 were living in a grandparent(s)' home. By 1996, 4 million (6%) were living in that situation. Over one-third of these children, or 1.4 million, were being raised solely by their grandparents, without the presence of either parent.
Based on 1996 Census data, 48% of grandparent caregivers range between 50 and 64 years of age, with an additional 33% under the age of 50 and 19% over the age of 65. Forty-eight percent of the 2.4 million families with one or more grandchildren present are maintained by both grandparents. Marital rates by gender are distinctly different, however. Forty-six percent of these families are maintained exclusively by grandmothers with 6% being solely maintained by grandfathers.
Grandparents parenting their grandchildren transcend all socioeconomic
groups, geographic areas and ethnicities. However, these families
are more likely to be poor and located in or near cities. According
to 1995 Census data, 13.5 percent of African-American children lived with
their grandparents, as did 6.5 percent of Hispanics and 4.1 percent of
whites. In actual numbers, more white children (2.2 million) lived
with their grandparents than African-American children (1.5 million) or
Hispanic children (.6 million).
What are the types of grandparent caregivers?
One common way to categorize grandparent caregivers is to divide them into three types. First are the custodial grandparents. These grandparents have legal custody of their grandchildren; they provide daily care and decision making tasks. Typically, severe problems existed in the child's nuclear family. The focus of this type of caregiving is on the grandchild and providing them with a sense of security.
The second type of grandparent caregivers are the "living with" grandparents. These grandparents provide daily care for their grandchildren, but do not have legal custody. The child's parent may or may not live in the home. These grandparents focus on providing an economically and emotionally stable environment for the child, and often on helping the parent. Because the grandparent does not possess legal custody, he or she has no way of protecting the child from an unsuitable or dangerous parent.
"Day care" grandparents are the third type of grandparent caregivers. Their focus is on helping the child's parent and on fulfilling their own needs. These grandparents tend to be least affected by their caretaking role because the children return home at the end of the day. They function closest to the societal definition of "grandparent."
Another way to divide grandparent caregivers is that used by the Census Bureau. Households are divided into those in which neither parent is present, only the mother is present, only the father is present, or both parents are present.
The following information focuses on grandparents and grandchildren
who are living together with neither biological parent present.
Why are grandparents acting as parents?
Grandparents may resume a parenting role for a variety of reasons, most of which revolve around problems related to the child's parent. Increasing numbers of grandparents are providing permanent care to their grandchildren as a result of divorce, substance abuse, child abuse and/or neglect, abandonment, teenage pregnancy, death, HIV/AIDS, unemployment, incarceration and mental health problems. The reasons why grandparents raise their grandchildren are varied, but all result in a great deal of responsibility for the grandparent who takes on the task.
What are the difficulties?
Much of the research on grandparent caregivers focuses upon the difficulties surrounding their role. For some grandparents, health may be an issue. Older grandparents may be coping with progressively serious and frequent health problems. Irrespective of their health, though, is the issue of stamina. Many grandparents report feeling both emotionally and physically drained. They may fear that as a result of their tiredness (and possible health problems) they may be unable to meet the demands of parenting. Older grandparents also worry about what will happen to their grandchildren if something happens to them.
Many grandparents in this situation suffer from economic difficulties. Because many elderly people are already living on a low income, taking on the care of a grandchild may put their economic future in jeopardy. Some grandparents are forced to make job-related sacrifices while others, who were comfortably retired, quickly deplete their funds when they take on the responsibility of their grandchild. Although there is an increasing number of support groups and informative organizations, there still exists a lack of government support. For example, many grandparents are denied benefits provided to foster parents based on their blood relation to the child, even though they may be in just as much need. Such inadequate assistance only compounds the grandparents' economic difficulties, and in a sense penalizes them for their willingness to care for their grandchildren.
The circumstances that bring a child into the care of their grandparent are often a potentially harmful and high-risk nature. These circumstances can result in various difficulties in child rearing. For instance, children who were prenatally exposed to drugs or who have suffered from abuse or neglect may suffer from physical and/or emotional problems that may make it difficult to provide care for them. In many cases, behavioral problems can also become an issue. These problems often differ by gender. For example, boys tend to exhibit behavioral disorders in regards to stressors such as divorce or family break-ups more than girls, while girls tend to internalize their feelings more than boys. Finally, social stereotyping of these children may also exist. Other children may make fun of them because their "parents" are so old, or question their real parents' whereabouts which may cause some resentment toward the grandparent by the grandchild.
Taking on a parental role will have effects upon an individual's lifestyle and his or her relationships with family and friends. (Even without such responsibilities, older adults are facing and resolving new developmental issues of their own.) The extent of these effects is generally dependent upon the extent of care provided. For instance, grandparents who raise their grandchildren are continuing their parenting role when the preference, once their own children are grown, is normally to relinquish it. Thus, many grandparents report a loss of time for themselves.
Once their children leave home, many older adults replace their role and responsibilities as a parent with an expanded social network. Social resources are often a determinant of developmental well being as grandparents age. Raising a grandchild often isolates grandparents from this social network since many grandparent caregivers are no longer in the same situation as their friends. The new responsibilities of caregiving often prevent such grandparents from participating in social activities, while friends who are free from parental responsibilities may not wish to include young children in their spur of the moment activities. Burton, et al. (1995) suggest, however, that the grandparent caregiving role can be normalized for grandparents when other members of their immediate social group are also caregivers.
Grandparents may also become isolated from other members of the family, who may resent the role that they have taken on. A case in point may be other grandchildren, who may feel some jealousy in their perception that the grandchild in the grandparents' home is favored. Grandparenting and parenting roles traditionally differ widely in the kinds and levels of responsibility involved. Grandparents cannot be "grandparents" to the child who is under their care when they are parenting that child, and this may cause role confusion in the family.
Additionally, these grandparents must deal with the trauma that precipitated their role as caregiver. For instance, if the child's parent has died, the grandparent must cope not only with his or her own grief, but also with the grief of their grandchild. An adult child's problems with drugs or alcohol, abuse or neglect, or teenage pregnancy, requires grandparents to cope with the loss of their own hopes and expectations for their son or daughter.
What are the benefits?
Although the research is focused primarily on the difficulties of grandparents caring for their grandchildren, there are also benefits. According to research by Jendrek, a majority of caregiving grandparents report experiencing a greater purpose for living. Providing care to their grandchildren helps some caregivers to feel young and active.
Research by Burton, et al., (1995) also includes rewards such
as a chance to raise a child differently, to nurture family relationships,
continue family histories and to receive love and companionship from their
grandchild (p. 353). To many of the grandparents raising their grandchildren,
their sacrifices are more than worth it. It is clear that despite
the problems, most grandparents derive satisfaction from acting as parents
to their grandchildren.
How do the children fare?
Just as there are difficulties and benefits associated with grandparents who take on the caregiving role, research has also shown that there are transitions for the children who have come to live with their grandparents as well. Although these transitions may often be viewed in terms of difficulties, there can be positive aspects.
In a recent study by Solomon and Marx using national data, children in their grandparent's care were compared with children in two-parent and single biological parent (including remarried family) homes. It was found that children being raised solely by their grandparents are healthier than children living in single-parent or remarried homes. In addition, such children have fewer behavioral problems and are better socially adapted. However, one concern that emerged was that these children performed lower academically although the specific cause of this was unknown.
Research by Bell and Garner (1996) also indicates the benefits of "kincare" when children are removed from their family or origin. They report the potential to reduce trauma to children by placing them in the care of someone they know and trust in comparison to an unknown foster family. Grandparents who raise their grandchildren, for example, can "support the transmission of a child's family identity, culture, and/or ethnicity" while keeping children connected to their siblings. Finally, these authors report that such caregiving relationships can strengthen the ability or extended families to give each other the support they need.
Research by Shore and Hayslip, however, has indicated more troubling
outcomes for children raised by their grandparents. Many custodial
grandparents, compared to traditional grandparents, report increased rates
of behavioral problems. This is true for boys more so that for girls.
These researchers suggest this is because boys are exposed to more family
conflict, and they are more vulnerable to stress. They are also more
likely to be the children sent to live with grandparents in times of parental
conflict. However, it is unknown whether behavioral problems are
a result of stress in the child's family or origin or their present living
situation with their grandparents. It should be noted that overall
there has been little research specifically conducted on how children may
fare emotionally, socially or academically while in the care of their grandparents.
What are the legal issues?
The legal issues that grandparents raising their grandchildren must cope with depend on the type of care they are providing -- specifically, whether they are 'custodial,' 'living with,' or 'day care' grandparents. Custodial grandparents either seek or are forced to enter into a legally recognized relationship with their grandchild. This is a serious step for the grandparent; it means that he or she will have both physical and legal rights and responsibilities for the child.
Legally recognized relationships open to grandparents are adoption, guardianship, certification as a foster parent, and powers of attorney. If the grandparent chooses adoption, all rights and obligations of the child's parents are terminated. This is often a difficult decision. Unless their child is deceased, it means that the grandparent must admit that their child is an unfit parent. Guardianship may be either permanent or temporary. Certification as a foster parent qualifies the caregiver for financial benefits on a par with other foster parents. Powers of attorney allow grandparents only to make decision regarding the grandchildren. They do not transfer legal custody. It is important for grandparents to understand the legal and financial implications of different types of formal and informal custody.
Grandparents who assume daily responsibilities for their grandchild but have no legal rights or duties face difficulties as well. Their living arrangements are often not recognized, and they are ineligible for state benefits. They may be viewed as "baby-sitting" their grandchildren. Because they have no rights, they must abide by the decisions of the child's parent. This may or may not be a difficult thing to do. Some grandparents are merely helping out the child's parents, and know the arrangement to be a temporary one. Others, though, worry about returning their grandchild to an abusive or neglectful environment; their lack of rights may be the impetus to seek legal custody. Seeking custody is a time consuming, expensive an emotionally draining process. The courts are supposed to base their decision of the "best interests of the child" rather than the interests of the grandparent. However, the rights of the grandparents often come after the rights of the natural parent.
What financial assistance is available?
Many older adults, when faced with the expenses of raising a child, find that they are in need of financial assistance. In the past, the two primary sources of assistance were Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and foster care stipends.
The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act was passed
1996 by the United State Congress. It replaced AFDC with Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) programs. According to AARP
(1997), these new programs are different from AFDC in the following ways:
Grandparents who become licensed foster care providers are eligible for foster care maintenance payments. In the past, these payments were often more than the amount provided by AFDC, which was a help to struggling grandparents. Some states will refuse foster care financial assistance for children placed with relatives. Grandparents who have been foster care providers and who were funded by AFDC will be affected by welfare reform. Those who were funded by the foster care or child welfare system (Title IV-E funds) will not have to meet new requirements.
Other forms of assistance, such as Medicaid, SSI, Food Stamps,
or Head Start programs, have in the past been available to grandchildren,
regardless of whether or not their grandparents had custody of them.
Again, the welfare reform laws have changed eligibility for these programs
in the past year. It is important to note that Medicaid is not tied
to TANF eligibility. As to SSI, the eligible diagnosis categories
have been decreased. At this time, before providing information to
others, it is best to contact local offices for the latest information.
Also note that, at times, irrespective of eligibility, there may be difficulty
in obtaining these benefits.
What are some of the unanswered questions?
There are many questions concerning grandparents who parent their grandchildren that remain unanswered. In fact, grandparents as parents is an area of research that only has emerged in recent years. As such, a large collection of literature has not yet been established, while the research that is available tends to focus on the negative aspects of caring for grandchildren.
To begin with, then, we need to learn more about the difficulties and benefits which may be common to all grandparents who parent their grandchildren. It would be helpful to also distinguish the factors that influence possible differences among grandparent caregiving populations as well. Some variables that might be important to an understanding of grandparent caregivers are race, marital status, income, employment status, and geographical setting.
Another area of future research that is needed is an exploration of how the age of both the grandparent and the grandchild may affect their relationship. We know very little about the differences between younger and older grandparent caregivers and the effects that each may have upon the development of their grandchild. We also know little about the effects of differences in the ages of children when they come to live with their grandparents. These differences may have implications for both the caregiver and the children.
Gender is also an issue likely to be related to outcomes for both the child and the adult. Research has demonstrated developmental and behavioral differences between boys and girls, yet we know little about what this means for the grandparent caring for the child. The gender of the grandparent is also likely to have an important influence on the grandchild. Initial research suggests that children tend to benefit from the presence of a grandfather, though the reasons for this are not known. It may be that grandfathers are not only a source of strong affection, but provide a traditional authoritarian male gender role. The benefit may come from the likelihood that grandfather-headed families have more money available to them. Another explanation may be the presence of two adults in the home.
In terms of the children, research is only beginning to establish how children living with their grandparents fare in both the short and long term. There are many developmental aspects that merit additional research. In addition, more research is needed to examine the behavioral difficulties of grandchildren in grandparent care as compared to children in parental care.
Finally, information is also needed in regard to what coping strategies
and resources are most effective and helpful for individuals, families,
and communities. This information can then be applied to the development
of public policy.
What do grandparent caregivers need?
One of the most important questions in regards to grandparent
caregiving may be how do you start meeting the needs of grandparent caregivers
in your community? A good place to start is by asking them what they
need. The next step would be to find ways to fulfill these needs
either directly or by referral to available services and supports.
The following grandparent caregiver's "wish list" is based on one published
by Turner (1995) in the Family Resource Coalition Report.
informational/educational needs:
-- Information on child development and parenting
-- Information on parenting children with difficulties
-- Library of books, pamphlets, and videos
supportive needs:
-- Short-term respite services (child care co-located with other services
or provided by a parent or cooperative)
-- One-on-one or group counseling for grandparents and grandchildren
-- Programs on stress reduction
-- Peer support and mutual aid groups
-- Telephone hotlines and "warm lines"
financial & legal needs:
-- Increased income opportunities
-- Advocacy on accessing public and private assistance and programs
-- Expert advice on legal, financial, medical, housing, and education
questions
-- Toy, clothing, and equipment exchange or lending service
public policy needs:
--Activist organization through which grandparent caregivers can educate
the public and lobby for increased services
Grandparents Acting as Parents:
References
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Bell, W., & Garner, J. (1996). Kincare. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 25, 11-20.
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